9.1.3 Processes of Urbanisation | AQA A Level Geography Revision Notes 2018 (2024)

• There are economic, social, technological, political and demographic processes associated with urbanisation and urban growth

Table of Development Processes Associated with Urbanisation and Urban Growth

• Urban pull factors - positive multiplier effect
  • Higher wages
  • Pace and excitement
  • Improved education and healthcare
  • Better job opportunities
  • Public utilities: water, gas, electricity, etc.
  • Government support

• Urbanisation is part of a sequence of processes that may also involve the processes of suburbanisation, counter-urbanisation and re-urbanisation
• This sequence has occurred in many HDEs, including the UK and Germany, over the last 50 years
• Changes occur as urban environments age and the needs of people change
• These changes include:
  • Deindustrialisation - flight of industry and foreign competition
  • Rise in the service economy - improvement in education and training
  • Decentralisation - competition of land space

Clarke-Fisher Model of the UKs Employment Sectors

• Prior to industrialisation, the majority of people lived and worked within rural areas and cities were small with few opportunities
• With industrialisation, cities needed more workers
  • As more moved to the cities – there was a demand for low cost houses for the workers
  • This resulted in high-density cheap housing (fitting as many houses as possible in a small area
  • People had to live close to work due to lack of transport
  • This saw a rise in small corner shops and local facilities
• During the early 20th century, cities first started to see a decline as businesses and the more affluent, skilled and educated work force moved away to the new growth of suburbs
• This left behind empty buildings and housing occupied by those who couldn’t afford to move
• Initially after WWII, a period of growth began again and cities became centres of redevelopment
• However, during the 1960s there came competition from foreign developing economies (Singapore and Taiwan), who were producing goods at a cheaper rate
• By the 1970s, HDEs were struggling to compete with foreign made goods and industries began closing and moving overseas or collapsed entirely - Sheffield saw the loss of its steel production which led to mass unemployment and poverty
• Factories were abandoned and large areas laid to waste and became dumping ground, leading to a large stock of brownfield sites
• Deindustrialisation impacted heavily on cities and unemployment rose above 3 million in the UK in 1983, the highest rate of unemployment since WWII
• The losses of jobs and poor services, led to social unrest and a rise in crime for those left behind - a period of 'urban blight' set in

Rise of the service industry

• With deindustrialisation and high unemployment, the government began a new training programme to re-train people in the rise of technology and changes in finance and retail industries
• From the 1980s onwards, the retail and banking industry, along with higher wages and disposable income, expanded and became the dominant western economy
• This was the rise of globalisation, and HDEs were well placed to take advantage over LDEs and EMEs through their past knowledge of industrial processes
• There began the growth in corporate (multinational) headquarters, along with the rise of the knowledge economy to meet the needs of other businesses
• Research and development rose to meet the demands of the expanding population and subsequent rise and understanding of technology - hospitals, schools, universities etc.
• Property development was needed to meet the needs of 'new' businesses and housing for the rise of 'high-flyer' employees and executives
• Better pay, cheaper goods and more 'time-off' led to the increase in the demand for leisure services and tourism
• Core urban areas attract large multinational companies, and need to be serviced but also attract retail industry
• Consumer services are located near affluent suburban populations with good transport access but also attracting a different workforce
• Research and development facilities are located at the urban fringe for space, access and locations near to universities
• However, the overall urban employment rate remains high (a certain level of education and skill is needed to secure employment)
• Well paid managerial jobs are few and fiercely protected
• There is a high turn over of low paid and temporary jobs

Decentralisation

• During the industrial revolution, industry tended to be located within the inner cities. However, as cities have grown, access to these areas have declined – workers, raw material and distribution of finished goods
• There is also the change in manufacturing practices and type – woollen mills, steel, paper etc.
• Inner city locations lacked expansion space or opportunities to reorganise
• Old industrial sites were often polluted, costly to clean up and a general public health hazard
• Retailing and commercial sectors were demanding land in a more central position
• This has led to a cross-over between decentralisation and the rise of the service economy:
  • More people have access to cars and this has led to new developments
  • Suburban CBDs – as urban areas grew, people found themselves further away from CBDs, so suburban retail and commercial centres expanded
  • Retail parks are sited along ring roads and major intersections
  • Urban superstores and hypermarkets – along points of high access and consumer demand – led by large corporations – Tesco, Asda, Sainsbury's etc.
  • Out of town shopping centres – providing one-stop shopping, eating and leisure facilities
  • Internet shopping and home delivery – this is changing the face of the urban area and traditional shopping habits
  • Peripheral locations are becoming more popular as they offer advantages, including niche markets, parking, accessibility and sometimes cheaper land prices
• Changes in service locations – this includes hospitals, sport complexes, golf courses, schools, colleges and university campuses
• Cheaper land, availability of space and potential for expansion, good access for transport and infrastructure
• Pleasant working environment - less pollution and time spent accessing the services
• Where the services have expanded, this has had a knock-on effect within the inner city regions
• With average or lower than average salaries, some key-workers have found themselves in inner city locations where they cannot afford to live - nurses, teachers, paramedics, police and fire officers
• This has led to further decline in the inner city areas

• Over the last 50 years, successive governments have continued to implement change, promote growth and development within the UKs urban areas

Prior to 1979

• One major design fault was the lack of open recreational spaces, the use of high density, high-rise flats and apartments during the redevelopment in the 60’s
• Once again, wealthier people left the inner city, leaving behind pensioners, one-parent families, students and ethnic minorities
• Over time, housing was allowed to deteriorate, and as people moved out, boarded-up buildings became common
• These attracted squatters, drug users and petty criminals
• Terms such as 'urban blight' were used to describe urban areas with derelict factories and run-down housing
• Tower blocks were eventually demolished
• By the end of the 1970s, inner city areas were suffering from:
  • Industrial decline
  • High unemployment
  • Abandoned warehouses - eyesores and attracted vandalism
  • High crime rates
  • Poor quality housing
  • Overcrowding
  • Lack of open spaces
  • Lack of parking spaces
  • Atmospheric pollution
  • Heavy traffic

1979-1990s

• The UK government finally took a serious look at urban decline and initiated a project called Urban Development Corporations (UDCs) to bring urban decay to a halt
• As well as bringing brownfield sites back into use, to improve housing conditions, it wanted to improve local prospects by offering training for employment to be provided by private investment
• This would hopefully lead to a reduction in unemployment, crime and antisocial behaviour
• Renewed economic activity was expected to lead to better living conditions in a better environment
• Many different schemes and task forces have been used to try to bring about these improvements, but overall housing, educational and employment prospects and health are below the national averages
• Problems in housing, education, employment, antisocial behaviour and crime are not confined to inner city areas

• If anything, they are greater on council estates, many of which were built on Greenfield sites in the 20 years after World War II

1981-present

• Enterprise Zones (EZs) were established in areas of high unemployment, with the hope of attracting companies to the area to boost the local economy by employing the local workforce
• The government provided incentives, such as reducing corporation and land taxes, reduced rents and cheaper power supplies
• By the end of the 1990s, EZs employed more than 125,000 people over 5000 companies
• But, the incentives did encourage existing companies to move their staff and premises to EZs, effectively limiting the creating of new jobs

1991-1997

• Local authorities had the opportunity to complete for government funding to regenerate their deprived areas in a scheme called the City Challenge
• Working with local communities and private companies, improvements were made to the, economic, social and physical environment of the area
• Funding was allocated directly to local communities to improve housing, education and training, allowing people to access jobs and better healthcare
• By the end, over 50,000 jobs were created and 40,000 homes improved, but unfortunately many deprived areas missed out on funding

2010 to present

• In partnership with private companies, the government has provided financial support and expertise for urban regeneration and renewal
• Called the Partnership Schemes, its aims are similar to the City Challenge, with the improvements to economic. social and physical environment of deprived areas
• Liverpool City Region Local Enterprise Partnership (2012) has increased business activity, created new jobs, provided parks, new affordable homes, regenerated Albert Docks and built new sports and leisure centres